Examining Misinformation and Disinformation Games: Dichotomies and Context

This paper examines a body of games designed to help players recognize and resist misinformation and disinformation, analyzing their underlying communication theories through a literature review and meta-analysis. The authors evaluate these games against three frameworks commonly used in behavior modification and education: inoculation theory, which uses weakened exposure to build resistance; transportation theory, which holds that immersive narratives shape attitudes; and excitation-transfer theory, which explains how emotional arousal from one media experience can carry over into another. The central aim is to clarify how these theories have been translated into game design and to identify where implementations diverge from the standards of the theories they claim to apply.

A major finding concerns a dichotomy between games that have players practice harmful behaviors, such as spreading misinformation, and those that reward practicing accurate identification skills. Popular examples such as Get Bad News and Breaking Harmony Square adopt the negative-practice approach, while Factitious and Go Viral focus on real-world identification skills. The analysis reports that the most widely played of these games often contradict core elements of the theories they draw on. For instance, inoculation theory specifies threat, counterarguments, and refutations as key components, yet none of the examined games that explicitly invoke inoculation theory clearly presents a threat or offers a counterargument. The authors also note that complete implementations of these theories typically include social components that are largely absent from the games studied.

The paper further catalogs design characteristics across the games, including narrative use, role play, the degree of abstraction from real-world activities, and whether curricular support is provided. Practical features are also examined, such as the availability of multiple languages, development time, and funding sources. The sample spans well-funded, multi-year projects as well as games produced at short events like weekend game jams, offering a broad view of the field. The authors position their findings as a template for future purpose-driven games and as a set of design heuristics that can guide more theoretically grounded interventions addressing societal challenges.